When Computers Were Human 322
When Computers Were Human | |
author | David Alan Grier |
pages | 424 (with index and table of names) |
publisher | Princeton University Press |
rating | worth reading |
reviewer | Stern |
ISBN | 0691091579 |
summary | A history of the first "computers", semi-literates who did math by hand |
The most important of these teams was the Mathematical Tables Project, organized by the Work Projects Administration in the United States during the Great Depression. WPA rules required the hiring of people with virtually no skills, so much of the definitive work of the Mathematical Tables Project was computed by people who had mastered only addition. They were not authorized to subtract, let alone delve into the mysteries of multiplication or division. The algorithmic steps assigned to them sometimes produced negative numbers, and it goes almost without saying that these computers had no idea what these were or how to handle them. Gertrude Blanch, the mathematician who oversaw their work, had devised a scheme whereby positive numbers would be written in black, negative numbers in red. On the wall in front of her human computers hung a poster that encapsulates much of the era of human computing. It read:
Black plus black is blackRed plus red is red
Black plus red or red plus black, hand the sheets to team 2
Grier has written a history of human computing. It begins in the 1760s and continues through the two hundred years until digital computers ended the industry.
From the start, computers were dedicated to projects in astronomy, cartography, and navigation. Grier describes the nature of these problems and why they required numerical solutions. He touches on the alternating competition and cooperation between teams of computers in different countries, and the different organizational models they employed. Perhaps the most memorable fact from the early years of human computing is that the very first team of French computers, assembled by Gaspard Clair Francois Marie Riche de Prony in the early 1790s, was composed entirely of wig-makers left unemployed by the French Revolution. They created trigonometric tables required by France's experiments with the decimalization of trigonometry (an abandoned effort to do for angle measure what the metric system was doing for the measurement of mass, length, and so forth).
Their work, though of little ultimate relevance to the modern world, illustrates aspects of human computing that would not change. Major computing efforts were always sponsored by governments. A small number of planners oversaw work by people who themselves knew little math. And the bulk of the work was done by people who were marginalized, perhaps otherwise unemployable, and who would do the repetitive calculations. This work conferred no prestige, and many were skeptical even of the conclusions drawn from it. If an equation could not be properly solved, how could one take confidence from any numerical approximation? Even Henry David Thoreau worked a dig at human computers into the manuscript for Walden, dismissing the mathematics that might allow an astronomer "to discover new satellites of Neptune but not detect the motes in his eyes, or to what vagabond he is a satellite himself."
Women emerged as the most important computers. Demand for computing spiked in wartime, when young men were off fighting and therefore unavailable, and the economics of hiring women was compelling even in peacetime. They would work for half of what similarly skilled men would. By World War II, in the United States, computing power was measured not in megahertz or teraflops, but in kilogirls.
By the 20th century, the work of human computers was augmented by mechanical or even electrical calculators that automated certain steps of their work, but these were expensive and prone to breakdown, and did not significantly change the nature of the work.
Grier devotes special attention to the Mathematical Tables Project run by the WPA, later taken over by the National Bureau of Standards, and to the mathematician Gertrude Blanch who ran that team. She is fascinating, a woman who arrived in the United States at the age of 11, who had worked to support her family and not been able to get her Ph.D until she was 39 years old. It was then 1936, the middle of the Great Depression, and the job prospects for female, Jewish mathematicians were bleak. Through luck and hard work she found her way to the Mathematical Tables Project, where she assumed a role that combined mathematician, schoolteacher, and coach. Her fanatical attention to error-checking resulted in tables good enough to win the support of those who were skeptical of work by a government relief organization. She also led by example, and solved certain problems personally when she thought that would be easier than breaking down the algorithms for her computers. Grier says that Blanch in this way personally did work that backed Hans Bethe's Nobel prize-winning model of solar evolution, though it is unclear if Bethe ever knew that the math had been done by one mathematician, rather than her computers. After the war, Blanch was hampered by FBI suspicions that she was secretly a communist. Their evidence for this was nearly nonexistent, and in what must have been a remarkable showdown, this diminutive fifty-year-old mathematician demanded, and won, a hearing to clear her name. She worked productively in numerical mathematics and algorithms for the rest of her life, but remained forever suspicious of digital computers and never adopted them herself.
Grier does excellent research, tracking down surviving computers and sorting through family letters to tell the stories of an entire industry that is being forgotten. He even finds evidence for the working environment for the women computers at Harvard Observatory in the late 1870s in the lyrics to a satire of Gilbert & Sullivan's HMS Pinafore, written by a junior astronomer there at the time.
The book is beautifully printed and has a comprehensive index. Kudos to the Princeton University Press for taking such pride in their work.
When Computers Were Human is weak in several areas. First, Grier glosses over technical aspects of human computing. What were the algorithms that these people used? How was error-checking implemented? He never tells us. Clearly, Grier's goal was to write a work of history, not math, but the people likely to read it are people who care about the math, or about computers, and he omits material that such readers would expect. Second, this is a bureaucratic story. The best human computing was done by large teams sponsored by government in wartime, and the story of these teams revolves around the politicians or bureaucrats who arranged for their funding, and the various acronym-labeled groups that gave them work or provided their employees. At times, it reads as much like a history of agricultural policies as a text about the prehistory of computers.
Grier's story follows his sources: he devotes space to the groups where he has the most material, even if others may have been larger or done more important work. Finally, his discussion of digital computers, where they play a role in the story, is cursory, and may not give credit to those who deserve it.
Is it worth reading? Yes. Consider the reviews of the final tables published by the Bureau of Standards at Amazon.com: In comments as recent as 2004, people who are still using these 50-year-old volumes comment in several languages on which chapters of the books are most useful, where to beware of errors or outdated methods, and on the special emotional role that these volumes play for those who use them, or who needed them in the past. "I probably would never have gotten my Ph.D without this book, and it is a stupendous classic." "Nearly every time you need a mathematical relation or information you will find it on this book." "If you work with mathematical research or numerical computing, you must have this book," and so forth. This praise, and Grier's book, are fine testaments to the world's first computers.
You can purchase When Computers Were Human from bn.com. Slashdot welcomes readers' book reviews -- to see your own review here, read the book review guidelines, then visit the submission page.
Slide rules... (Score:5, Funny)
Re:Slide rules... (Score:5, Funny)
Re:Slide rules... (Score:2)
Re:Slide rules... (Score:2)
Re:Slide rules... (Score:2)
Build your own slide rule (Score:5, Interesting)
http://www.sphere.bc.ca/test/build.html [sphere.bc.ca]
http://solar.physics.montana.edu/kankel/math/csr.
etc.
Re:Build your own slide rule (Score:2)
Circular Slide Rule here.... (Score:3, Interesting)
Re:Slide rules... (Score:5, Interesting)
Re:Slide rules... (Score:4, Interesting)
Third: geek factor
Fourth: no batteries needed
Re:Slide rules... (Score:2, Funny)
Re:Slide rules... (Score:2)
Re:Slide rules... (Score:5, Informative)
Re:Slide rules... (Score:5, Informative)
Lets let wikipedia rebutt this:
Re:Slide rules... (Score:3, Interesting)
It would be remarkably trivial for pocket calculators to analyze the input data and determine how many significant figures are approprate. Why so few models offer this feature, even as an optional mode, I do not understand.
Re:Slide rules...I love slashdot (Score:3, Insightful)
You get into really, really big problems when you mix flop and integer math, and the calculator couldn't know which one you're doing. The basic problem comes from the fact that "integer" precision is commonly notated the same wa
Re:Slide rules... (Score:3)
Yes.
Was 3 digits of accuracy sufficient for the moon shots?
No.
Did NASA engineers do different slide rules?
Yes.
Did they use computers to make the calculations?
They used 7-place log tables for the calculations which required more than the four digits which you could get from a 20 inch slide rule.
I still have a set of Baron Vega's log tables which I used in high school. No, I never
Re:Slide rules... (Score:2)
OSS Computers? (Score:3, Funny)
Re:OSS Computers? (Score:2)
That's a good question. I would guess that if you exclude processes related to each company's unique business logic, the proportion of OSS software used by their human computers was probably very high. The mathematical needs of most businesses are probably quite similar, so all of the computers would likely be using public domain algorithms. No one has patented basic mathematics yet..
Imagine... (Score:2, Funny)
(p.s. I'm not wasting perfectly good karma on this)
Re:Imagine... (Score:2)
I saw one! (Score:2)
Re:I saw one! (Score:2)
Nobody knew how to do math. It seems scandal of the story was a man who could do the math without the calculator - so the government wanted him to teach others how to do math so they could put people (expendible) into the rockets, instead of expensive computers.
It's all kind of a vague memory, so the details might be all wrong.
Obligatory Question (Score:3, Funny)
Re:Obligatory Question (Score:5, Funny)
- what happened to them when they were told to calculate the following problem: "Add one to a positive number and do it again until the result is null, then come tell me the result"
- did you have to put thermal grease under their butt to sit them on a socket-7 chair? and did they need a fan on their forehead?
- if you asked them to divide 20 by 4, would they sometime answer 4.99999999?
- Did they use their fingers to write on a certain sheet (address) and their feet to switch sheets (segments)?
etc...
Most important question of them all... (Score:5, Funny)
I, for one... (Score:2)
David Alan Grier? (Score:5, Funny)
Re:David Alan Grier? (Score:5, Funny)
I propose that we begin using a word to identify said namespaces. Let's call it a "title". When we then refer to a specific person, we then refer to them by title. For example, and I'm just making this up here, we may want to have several committee meetings before we settle on these namespace titles, we could refer to this person as "Comedian David Alan Grier". This would disambiguate references to that person from another person... lets call him "Professor David Alan Grier".
Of course this is just an idea in formation stages. We'll need to hold off on any action until we have an RFC with approvals from the appropriate naming organizations and an ISO standard to help ensure worldwide compatibility.
Truly amazing... (Score:5, Interesting)
The more interesting part is the title rather than the blurb though. It sounded almost like when men were men, women were women and small furry creatures from Alpha Centauri were small furry creatures. Sadly this seems to be a story about the people who bothered the so called computers rather than a story of grit and glory - a story of buearacracy and communist witch hunts ?.
Re:Truly amazing... (Score:3, Interesting)
working as a sub-subcontractor on the Hubble Space
Telescope. The development teams for the science
instrument packages that were to upgrade (prior to
the SST accident) the HST would check the output
of Oracle database stored procedures by comparing
trig functions with those from a 20 year old trig
tables book.
If you thought proofreading the book in the grand-
parent
having to proofread the data tables in that 20
year old tri
Re:Truly amazing... (Score:2)
Should Read (Score:2)
In case anyone was confused by the lack of the line break.
Re:Should Read (Score:2)
Wow. Whodathunkit?
My God! (Score:5, Funny)
Re:My God! (Score:5, Funny)
Men On Books (Score:2)
The reviewer clearly should have rated this book "Two snaps in a Z formation"
Human computer license? (Score:3, Funny)
Re:Human computer license? (Score:2)
Dear Old Mum (Score:5, Interesting)
Re:Dear Old Mum (Score:2, Interesting)
Re:Dear Old Mum (Score:2)
Yeah, it's called a carry...
Re:Dear Old Mum (Score:3, Interesting)
It weighed about 40 lbs. (about 18 kg.) and had lots of mechanical buttons, circular mechanical readouts (think car's odomoeter), and gears, all housed in a neat, if heavy desktop box. It was about the size of a manual typewriter (though it has an AC power cord).
It could add, but arguably, some fast humans could probably add faster in their heads.
And You Guys Thought Working The Help Desk Sucked (Score:5, Interesting)
"Had a bunch of sevens at the plant today. Thought we never add them all up."
There's a slide-rule connection here. Oddly enough, numbers that couldn't be computed on a slide rule were deemed irrational. For those interested in slide rules, Here's a short history of the slide rule [hpmuseum.org] and here's a guy's collection of slide rules [eyrie.org]
Microsoft Taken To Task On Hiring Practices [whattofix.com]
Re:And You Guys Thought Working The Help Desk Suck (Score:2)
Marketing in RSS? Heavens To Betsy! [whattofix.com]
What did they eat? (Score:2, Funny)
Re:What did they eat? (Score:3, Funny)
Did they feed them pi?
Pi are round. They don't provide square meals.
Re:What did they eat? (Score:2)
Just imagine... (Score:2)
Reminds me of "Souls In The Great Machine" (Score:2, Interesting)
progress? (Score:5, Funny)
This is progress!?!?!
Re:progress? (Score:3, Insightful)
Re:progress? (Score:3, Funny)
In Europe as well! (Score:2)
I See The Future... (Score:2)
Babbage (Score:3, Interesting)
Parallelism: Feynman's "Los Alamos From Below" (Score:5, Interesting)
Re:Parallelism: Feynman's "Los Alamos From Below" (Score:3, Informative)
But still fascinating, as it is used in modern cpus for the very same reasons it was used back then, only on totally different scales....
Important point about Feynman (Score:3, Interesting)
Re:Important point about Feynman (Score:3, Funny)
I think it was called "Mr. Feynman, How Come You're So Awesome?"
Los Alamos (Score:3, Interesting)
Everybody there was doing the calculations on simple electromechanic calculators "Merchant" which had the unpleasant tendency to break down a lot. (They also used slide rule to get quick fist aproximations). Eventualy they purchased a great number of card-punching machines from IBM (designed for bank account tabelations) and adapted them for iterative numerical calculations by putting them into a *cycle* - a revolutionary idea at the time.
This stil required lots of people to feed the cards into the machines at each step and the stacks of cards was going round very very slowly. The biggest problem of these calculations was that at this point the boys were pretty bored with the job. When they were told what they were actualy working on, their productivity increased ninefold!
A very entertaining re-collection of this computing history is in "Los Alamos from bellow" in "Surely you are joking Mr. Feynman"
Asimov Short Story (Score:5, Interesting)
Re:Asimov Short Story (Score:2)
Related reading (Score:2)
I liked it.
Only in Book 0 (Score:2)
At least they balanced out (Score:2)
I've heard from older physicists that in those early years the scientist-computer match was quite popular.
(It still is, but, well...)
Expensive Book... (Score:2)
Re:Expensive Book... (Score:2)
Kilogirls metric is still in use today... (Score:3, Funny)
For what it's worth, I still measure a computer's ability in 'kilogirls' but its not necessarily related to the processor power...
David Alan Grier? (Score:2)
That's got to be a pretty rare name, though...
Whoa!!! (Score:2)
By World War II, in the United States, computing power was measured not in megahertz or teraflops, but in kilogirls.
WOW!! On side note, repetitive jokes involving 'kilogirls' are going to haunt /. for years to come just like beowulf jokes!!!!
... I have just such a book within reach ... (Score:2)
This 23rd edition features upgraded interest rate information in the financial section, with compound interest and associated material from one quarter of a percent through twenty percent in intervals of one quarter of a percent.
Brilliant!
The neat thing with this one is that not only do you get the tables, you also get all the formulas and breakdowns of dozens of proofs!
All in one handy volume!
CERN (Score:3, Interesting)
People wihout much of a background in physics would trall through the images, looking for patterns that they'd been told to look out for.
I think its important that someone is documenting the work of these heroes of maths and physics. Without them, advancements would have had to wait for the computer revolution. If we don't remember how important their contributions were, I'm sure it will only be a generation before they're forgotten.
Engineer now a watered down term. (Score:2)
Ballistics (Score:2, Informative)
Having said that, I believe, some of the points which the article brought up downplaye
Butlerian Jihad (Score:2)
Not as good as his dad's stuff, but OK. Get it in paperback. [amazon.com]
Conversations over dinner... (Score:2)
- How was work today?
- 3.1
Tuesday:
- How was work today?
- 3.141
Wednesday:
- How was work today?
- 3.141592
Full speed to the past (Score:4, Informative)
Are we there yet?
Re:Full speed to the past (Score:3, Informative)
parallel processing techniques... (Score:2)
also:
there are sci-fi books and short stories about this sort of thing.
one of them is "the end of eternity", by isaac asimov - Computer Harkan (Computer as in a title like Doctor) is the main character.
also there's a short story - by greg bear, i believe - about a space expedition that got lost in deep space: t
Women as computers? (Score:3, Funny)
Computer Oral History Collection (Score:4, Informative)
Here [smithsonian.org].
I learned calculation with log tables (Score:5, Interesting)
We'd draw roots using them and all.
The reasoning was that anyone can keypunch but understanding what log actually mean is a differn't thing and requires getting your hands dirty. It was at that time when I started programming on my first computer - a PC 1402 Sharp Pocket Computer. Amongst my friends I was the only one that actually understood what these symbols really meant.
I'm gratefull for our teachers taking us that way. I'd actually do the same. Once you've really understood what logs are all about (and when you do your A levels with log tables you have understood what they're about) tackeling larger math problems is a piece of cake.
Take this advice: If you have kids, don't let them near/use an electronic calculator to early. Give them log tables or a slide ruler. It's the best was to learn higher math.
Re:I learned calculation with log tables (Score:3, Insightful)
lowered status of computer science for a while? (Score:3, Informative)
Re:David Alan Grier (Score:4, Informative)
Re:David Alan Grier (Score:2)
http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0004979/ [imdb.com]
Re:David Alan Grier (Score:2)
Not so old, not so past (Score:3, Insightful)
Well I take that back, George Bush has scheduled the next Depression in about 8 years. See you there in the computer room or the breadline. Your current skills will be worthless during the depression.
Dont believe me? the national debt had doubled under George. For the current generation that's a debt of about $1
Re:Not so old, not so past (Score:2)
Re:Not so old, not so past (Score:3, Insightful)
-2 points for violation of significant figures. (Yeah, I've been a physics TA before).
Seriously, though, this is a (petty and pedantic) pet peeve of mine. You have two sig figs on one number and three on the other. How the hell did you get precision to the nearest penny? You should have $26,000 per person, but if I were grading I'd also accept $26,300 per person since basic sig fig rules aren't precise anyway. (You need error analysis techniques to be bette
Re:Not so old, not so past (Score:2)
Re:Not so old, not so past (Score:4, Insightful)
this table shows every single Demo president since Carter _decreasing_ national debt as a percentage of GNP, and every Repo president _increasing_ it. So the common wisdom that Demo's overspend vis-a-vis Repo's is just wrong, and your point is basically correct even though the number is wrong.
http://www.skymachines.com/US_National_Debt_Per_C
wrong (Score:3, Informative)
ironically the only reason we have low interest rates right now is the inf
Re:Sci-Fi Novel (Score:3, Informative)
From what I remember, there's hardly any machine-computers in Dune. The empire has great technology and all, but it's all manned (space travel by the members of the spacing guild, calculations by mentats, telepathy by the bene gesserit)...
Re:Sci-Fi Novel (Score:3, Informative)
Even Star Trek treats the idea in Insurrection. One of the guys living on the paradise planet says, "When you create a machine to do the work of a man, it diminishes the man".
The people on this project were not mentat-like. They're more like an op-amp in a funky human computer.
STOP RIGHT THERE! (Score:2)
Re:Oblig. Bash Quote (Score:2)
Re:Grier? (Score:4, Informative)
There was a time when this was true of YOU, y'know.
Granted, these days most of us in industrialized nations move on and grok subtraction and negative numbers by second grade, but it doesn't seem unreasonable that 3/4ths of a century ago, some unskilled works might have made it to adulthood without getting that far.